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    <title>Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework</title>
    <ownerName>Douglas C. Engelbart</ownerName>
    <dateCreated>August 29, 2001</dateCreated>
    <dateModified>October 1962</dateModified>
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    <outline hs:nid="0499" text="AUGMENTING HUMAN INTELLECT: A Conceptual Framework.&lt;br /&gt;By Douglas C. Engelbart.&lt;br /&gt;October 1962.">
    <outline hs:nid="01" text="I. INTRODUCTION">
      <outline hs:nid="02" text="A. GENERAL">
        <outline hs:nid="03" text="By &quot;augmenting human intellect&quot; we mean increasing the capability of a man to approach a complex problem situation, to gain comprehension to suit his particular needs, and to derive solutions to problems. Increased capability in this respect is taken to mean a mixture of the following: more-rapid comprehension, better comprehension, the possibility of gaining a useful degree of comprehension in a situation that previously was too complex, speedier solutions, better solutions, and the possibility of finding solutions to problems that before seemed insoluble. And by &quot;complex situations&quot; we include the professional problems of diplomats, executives, social scientists, life scientists, physical scientists, attorneys, designers--whether the problem situation exists for twenty minutes or twenty years. We do not speak of isolated clever tricks that help in particular situations.  We refer to a way of life in an integrated domain where hunches, cut-and-try, intangibles, and the human &quot;feel for a situation&quot; usefully co-exist with powerful concepts, streamlined terminology and notation, sophisticated methods, and high-powered electronic aids."/>
        <outline hs:nid="04" text="Man's population and gross product are increasing at a considerable rate, but the &lt;i&gt;complexity&lt;/i&gt; of his problems grows still faster, and the &lt;i&gt;urgency&lt;/i&gt; with which solutions must be found becomes steadily greater in response to the increased rate of activity and the increasingly global nature of that activity. Augmenting man's intellect, in the sense defined above, would warrant full pursuit by an enlightened society if there could be shown a reasonable approach and some plausible benefits."/>
        <outline hs:nid="05" text="This report covers the first phase of a program aimed at developing means to augment the human intellect. These &quot;means&quot; can include many things--all of which appear to be but extensions of means developed andused in the past to help man apply his native sensory, mental, and motor capabilities--and we consider the whole system of a human and his augmentation means as a proper field of search for practical possibilities. It is a very important system to our society, and like most systems its performance can best be improved by considering the whole as a set of interacting components rather than by considering the components in isolation."/>
        <outline hs:nid="06" text="This kind of system approach to human intellectual effectiveness does not find a ready-made conceptual framework such as exists for established disciplines. Before a research program can be designed to pursue such an approach intelligently, so that practical benefits might be derived within a reasonable time while also producing results of longrange significance, a conceptual framework must be searched out--a framework that provides orientation as to the important factors of the system, the relationships among these factors, the types of change among the system factors that offer likely improvements in performance, and the sort of research goals and methodology that seem promising.&lt;a href=&quot;#Notes-1-1&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;"/>
        <outline hs:nid="07" text="In the first (search) phase of our program we have developed a conceptual framework that seems satisfactory for the current needs of designing a research phase. Section II contains the essence of this framework as derived from several different ways of looking at the system made up of a human and his intellect-augmentation means."/>
        <outline hs:nid="08" text="The process of developing this conceptual framework brought out a number of significant realizations: that the intellectual effectiveness exercised today by a given human has little likelihood of being intelligence limited--that there are dozens of disciplines in engineering, mathematics, and the social, life, and physical sciences that can contribute improvements to the system of intellect-augmentation means; that any one such improvement can be expected to trigger a chain of coordinatingimprovements; that until every one of these disciplines comes to a standstill and we have exhausted all the improvement possibilities we could glean from it, we can expect to continue to develop improvements in this human-intellect system; that there is no particular reason not to expect gains in personal intellectual effectiveness from a concerted systemoriented approach that compare to those made in personal geographic mobility since horseback and sailboat days."/>
        <outline hs:nid="09" text="The picture of how one can view the possibilities for a systematic approach to increasing human intellectual effectiveness, as put forth in Section II in the sober and general terms of an initial basic analysis, does not seem to convey all of the richness and promise that was stimulated by the development of that picture. Consequently, Section III is intended to present some definite images that illustrate meaningful possibilities deriveable from the conceptual framework presented in Section II--and in a rather marked deviation from ordinary technical writing, a good portion of Section III presents these images in a fiction-dialogue style as a mechanism for transmitting a feeling for the richness and promise of the possibilities in one region of the improvement space&quot; that is roughly mapped in Section II."/>
        <outline hs:nid="010" text="The style of Section III seems to make for easier reading. If Section II begins to seem unrewardingly difficult, the reader may find it helpful to skip from Section II-B directly to Section III. If it serves its purpose well enough, Section III will provide a context within which the reader can go back and finish Section II with less effort."/>
        <outline hs:nid="011" text="In Section IV (Research Recommendations) we present a general strategy for pursuing research toward increasing human intellectual effectiveness.  This strategy evolved directly from the concepts presented in Sections II and III; one of its important precepts is to pursue the quickest gains first, and use the increased intellectual effectiveness thus derived to help pursue successive gains. We see the quickest gains emerging from (1) giving the human the minute-by-minute services of a digital computer equipped with computer-driven cathode-ray-tube display, and (2) developing the new methods of thinking and working that allow the human to capitalizeupon the computer's help. By this same strategy, we recommend that an initial research effort develop a prototype system of this sort aimed at increasing human effectiveness in the task of computer programming."/>
        <outline hs:nid="012" text="To give the reader an initial orientation about what sort of thing this computer-aided working system might be, we include below a short description of a possible system of this sort. This illustrative example is not to be considered a description of the actual system that will emerge from the program. It is given only to show the general direction of the work, and is clothed in fiction only to make it easier to visualize."/>
        <outline hs:nid="013" text="Let us consider an augmented architect at work. He sits at a working station that has a visual display screen some three feet on a side; this is his working surface, and is controlled by a computer (his &quot;clerk&quot; ) with which he can communicate by means of a small keyboard and various other devices."/>
        <outline hs:nid="014" text="He is designing a building. He has already dreamed up several basic layouts and structural forms, and is trying them out on the screen. The surveying data for the layout he is working on now have already been entered, and he has just coaxed the clerk to show him a perspective view of the steep hillside building site with the roadway above, symbolic representations of the various trees that are to remain on the lot, and the service tie points for the different utilities. The view occupies the left two-thirds of the screen. With a &quot;pointer,&quot; he indicates two points of interest, moves his left hand rapidly over the keyboard, and the distance and elevation between the points indicated appear on the right- hand third of the screen."/>
        <outline hs:nid="015" text="Now he enters a reference line with his pointer, and the keyboard. Gradually the screen begins to show the work he is doing--a neat excavation appears in the hillside) revises itself slightly, and revises itself again. After a moment, the architect changes the scene on the screen to an overhead plan view of the site, still showing the excavation. A few minutes of study, and he enters on the keyboard a list of items, checking each one as it appears on the screen, to be studied later."/>
        <outline hs:nid="016" text="Ignoring the representation on the display, the architect next begins to enter a series of specifications and data--a six-inch slab floor, twelve-inch concrete walls eight feet high within the excavation, and so on. When he has finished, the revised scene appears on the screen. A structure is taking shape. He examines it, adjusts it, pauses long enough to ask for handbook or catalog information from the clerk at various points, and reacijusts accordingly. He often recalls from the &quot;clerk&quot; his working lists of specifications and considerations to refer to them, modify them, or add to them. These lists grow into an evermore-detailed, interlinked structure, which represents the maturing thought behind the actual design."/>
        <outline hs:nid="017" text="Prescribing different planes here and there, curved surfaces occasionally, and moving the whole structure about five feet, he finally has the rough external form of the building balanced nicely with the setting and he is assured that this form is basically compatible with the materials to be used as well as with the function of the building."/>
        <outline hs:nid="018" text="Now he begins to enter detailed information about the interior. Here the capability of the clerk to show him any view he wants to examine (a slice of the interior, or how the structure would look from the roadway above) is important. He enters particular fixture designs, and examines them in a particular room. He checks to make sure that sun glare from the windows will not blind a driver on the roadway, and the &quot;clerk&quot; computes the information that one window will reflect strongly onto the roadway between 6 and 6:30 on midsummer mornings."/>
        <outline hs:nid="019" text="Next he begins a functional analysis. He has a list of the people who will occupy this building, and the daily sequences of their activtites.  The &quot;clerk&quot; allows him to follow each in turn, examining how doors swing, where special lighting might be needed. Finally he has the &quot;clerk&quot; combine all of these sequences of activity to indicate spots where traffic is heavy in the building, or where congestion might occur, and to determine what the severest drain on the utilities is likely to be."/>
        <outline hs:nid="020" text="All of this information (the building design and its associated &quot;thought structure&quot;) can be stored on a tape to represent the design manual for the building. Loading this tape into his own clerk, another architect, a builder, or the client can maneuver within this design manual to pursue whatever details or insights are of interest to him--and can append special notes that are integrated into the design manual for his own or someone else's later benefit."/>
        <outline hs:nid="021" text="In such a future working relationship between human problem-solver and computer 'clerk,' the capability of the computer for executing mathematical processes would be used whenever it was needed. However, the computer has many other capabilities for manipulating and displaying information that can be of significant benefit to the human in nonmathematical processes of planning, organizing, studying, etc. Every person who does his thinking with symbolized concepts (whether in the form of the English language, pictographs, formal logic, or mathematics) should be able to benefit significantly."/>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="022" text="B. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY">
        <outline hs:nid="023" text="The objective of this study is to develop a conceptual framework within which could grow a coordinated research and development program whose goals would be the following: (1) to find the factors that limit the effectiveness of the individual's basic information-handling capabilities in meeting the various needs of society for problem solving in its most general sense; and (2) to develop new techniques, procedures, and systems that will better match these basic capabilities to the needs' problems, and progress of society. We have placed the following specifications on this framework:">
          <outline hs:nid="024" text="1. That it provide perspective for both long-range basic research and research that will yield practical results soon."/>
          <outline hs:nid="025" text="2. That it indicate what this augmentation will actually involve in the way of changes in working environment, in thinking, in skills, and in methods of working."/>
          <outline hs:nid="026" text="3. That it be a basis for evaluating the possible relevance of work and knowledge from existing fields and for assimilating whatever is relevant."/>
          <outline hs:nid="027" text="4. That it reveal areas where research is possible and ways to assess the research, be a basis for choosing starting points, and indicate how to develop appropriate methodologies for the needed research."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="028" text="Two points need emphasis here. First, although a conceptual framework has been constructed, it is still rudimentary. Further search, and actual research, are needed for the evolution of the framework. Second, even if our conceptual framework did provide an accurate and complete basic analysis of the system from which stems a human's intellectual effectiveness, the explicit nature of future improved systems would be highly affected by (expected) changes in our technology or in our understanding of the human being."/>
      </outline>
    </outline>
    <outline hs:nid="029" text="II. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK">
      <outline hs:nid="030" text="A. GENERAL">
        <outline hs:nid="031" text="The conceptual framework we seek must orient us toward the real possibilities and problems associated with using modern technology to give direct aid to an individual in comprehending complex situations, isolating the significant factors, and solving problems. To gain this orientation, we examine how individuals achieve their present level of effectiveness, and expect that this examination will reveal possibilities for improvement."/>
        <outline hs:nid="032" text="The entire effect of an individual on the world stems essentially from what he can transmit to the world through his limited motor channels. This in turn is based on information received from the outside world through limited sensory channels; on information, drives, and needs generated within him; and on his processing of that information. His processing is of two kinds: that which he is generally conscious of (recognizing patterns, remembering, visualizing, abstracting, deducing, inducing, etc.), and that involving the unconscious processing and mediating of received and self-generated information, and the unconscious mediating of conscious processing itself."/>
        <outline hs:nid="033" text="The individual does not use this information and this processing to grapple directly with the sort of complex situation in which we seek to give him help. He uses his innate capabilities in a rather more indirect fashion, since the situation is generally too complex to yield directly to his motor actions, and always too complex to yield comprehensions and solutions from direct sensory inspection and use of basic cognitive capabilities. For instance, an aborigine who possesses all of our basic sensory-mental-motor capabilities, but does not possess our background of indirect knowledge and procedure, cannot organize the proper direct actions necessary to drive a car through traffic, request a book from the library, call a committee meeting to discuss a tentative plan, call someone on the telephone, or compose a letter on the typewriter."/>
        <outline hs:nid="034" text="Our culture has evolved means for us to organize the little things we can do with our &lt;i&gt;basic&lt;/i&gt; capabilities so that we can derive comprehension from truly complex situations, and accomplish the processes of deriving and implementing problem solutions. The ways in which human capabilities are thus extended are here called augmentation means, and we define four basic classes of them:">
          <outline hs:nid="035" text="1. &lt;i&gt;Artifacts&lt;/i&gt;--physical objects designed to provide for human comfort, for the manipulation of things or materials, and for the manipulation of symbols."/>
          <outline hs:nid="036" text="2. &lt;i&gt;Language&lt;/i&gt;--the way in which the individual parcels out the picture of his world into the concepts that his mind uses to model that world, and the symbols that he attaches to those concepts and uses in consciously manipulating the concepts (&quot;thinking&quot;)."/>
          <outline hs:nid="037" text="3. &lt;i&gt;Methodology&lt;/i&gt;--the methods, procedures, strategies, etc., with which an individual organizes his &lt;i&gt;goal-centered&lt;/i&gt; (problem-solving) activity."/>
          <outline hs:nid="038" text="4. &lt;i&gt;Training&lt;/i&gt;--the conditioning needed by the human being to bring his skills in using Means 1, 2, and 3 to the point where they are operationally effective."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="039" text="The system we want to improve can thus be visualized as a trained human being together with his artifacts, language, and methodology. The explicit new system we contemplate will involve as artifacts computers, and computer-controlled information-storage, information-handling, and information-display devices.  The aspects of the conceptual framework that are discussed here are primarily those relating to the human being's ability to make significant use of such equipment in an integrated system."/>
        <outline hs:nid="040" text="Pervading all of the augmentation means is a particular structure or organization. While an untrained aborigine cannot drive a car through traffic, because he cannot leap the gap between his cultural background and the kind of world that contains cars and traffic, it is possible to move step by step through an organized training program that will enable him to drive effectively and safely. In other words, the human mind neither learns nor acts by large leaps, but by steps organized or structured so that each one depends upon previous steps."/>
        <outline hs:nid="041" text="Although the size of the step a human being can take in comprehension, innovation, or execution is small in comparison to the over-all size of the step needed to solve a complex problem, human beings nevertheless do solve complex problems. It is the augmentation means that serve to break down a large problem in such a way that the human being can walk through it with his little steps, and it is the structure or organization of these little steps or actions that we discuss as &lt;i&gt;process hierarchies&lt;/i&gt;."/>
        <outline hs:nid="042" text="Every process of thought or action is made up of sub-processes. Let us consider such examples as making a pencil stroke, writing a letter of the alphabet, or making a plan. Quite a few discrete muscle movements are organized into the making of a pencil stroke; similarly, making particular pencil strokes and making a plan for a letter are complex processes in themselves that become sub-processes to the over-all writing of an alphabetic character."/>
        <outline hs:nid="043" text="Although every sub-process is a process in its own right, in that it consists of further sub-processes, there seems to be no point here in looking for the ultimate bottom of the process-hierarchical structure. There seems to be no way of telling whether or not the apparent bottoms (processes that cannot be further subdivided) exist in the physical world or in the limitations of human understanding."/>
        <outline hs:nid="044" text="In any case, it is not necessary to begin from the bottom in discussing particular process hierarchies. No person uses a process that is completely unique every time he tackles something new. Instead, he begins from a group of basic sensory-mental-motor process capabilities, and adds to these certain of the process capabilities of his artifacts. There are only a finite number of such basic human and artifact capabilities from which to draw. Furthermore, even quite different higher order processes may have in common relatively high-order sub-processes&quot;."/>
        <outline hs:nid="045" text="When a man writes prose text (a reasonably high-order process), he makes use of many processes as sub-processes that are common to other high-order processes. For example, he makes use of planning, composing, dictating.  The process of writing is utilized as a sub-process within many different processes of a still higher order, such as organizing a committee, changing a policy, and so on."/>
        <outline hs:nid="046" text="What happens, then, is that each individual develops a certain repertoire of process capabilities from which he selects and adapts those that will compose the processes that he executes. This repertoire is like a tool kit, and just as the mechanic must know what his tools can do and how to use them, so the intellectual worker must know the capabilities of his tools and have good methods, strategies, and rules of thumb for making use of them. All of the process capabilities in the individual's repertoire rest ultimately upon basic capabilities within him or his artifacts, and the entire repertoire represents an inter-knit, hierarchical structure (which we often call the &lt;i&gt;repertoire hierarchy&lt;/i&gt;)."/>
        <outline hs:nid="047" text="We find three general categories of process capabilities within a typical individual's repertoire. There are those that are executed completely within the human integument, which we call explicit-human process capabilities; there are those possessed by artifacts for executing processes without human intervention, which we call &lt;i&gt;explicit-artifact&lt;/i&gt; process capabilities; and there are what we call the &lt;i&gt;composite&lt;/i&gt; process capabilities, which are derived from hierarchies containing both of the other kinds. "/>
        <outline hs:nid="048" text="We assume that it is our H-LAM/T system (Human using Lauguage, Artifacts, Methodology, in which he is Trained) that has the capability and that performs the process in any instance of use of this repertoire. Let us look within the process structure for the LAM/T ingredients, to get a better &quot;feel&quot; for our models. Consider the process of writing an important memo.There is a particular concept associated with this process -- that of putting information into a formal package and distributing it to a set of people for a certain kind of consideration -- and the type of information package associated with this concept has been given the special name of &lt;i&gt;memorandum&lt;/i&gt;.  Already the system language shows the effect of this process--i.e., a concept and its name."/>
        <outline hs:nid="049" text="The memo-writing process may be executed by using a set of process capabilities (in intermixed or repetitive form) such as the following planning, developing subject matter, composing text, producing hard copy, and distributing.  There is a definite way in which these sub-processes will be organized that represents part of the system methodology. Each of these sub-processes represents a functional concept that must be a part of the system language if it is to be organized effectively into the human's way of doing things, and the symbolic portrayal of each concept must be such that the human can work with it and remember it."/>
        <outline hs:nid="050" text="If the memo is simple, a paragraph or so in length, then the first three processes may well be of the explicit-human type (i.e., it may be planned, developed) and composed within the mind) and the last two of the composite type. If it is a complex memo, involving a good deal of careful planning and development, then all of the sub-processes might well be of the composite type (e.g., at least including the use of pencil and paper artifacts)' and there might be many different applications of some of the process capabilities within the total process (i.e., successive drafts, revised plans)."/>
        <outline hs:nid="051" text="The set of sub-process capabilities discussed so far, if called upon in proper occasion and sequence, would indeed enable the execution of the memo-writing process. However, the very process of organizing and supervising the utilization of these sub-process capabilities is itself a most important sub-process of the memo-writing process. Hence, the sub- process capabilities as listed would not be complete without the addition of a seventh capability--what we call the &lt;i&gt;executive&lt;/i&gt; capability. This is the capability stemming from habit, strategy, rules of thumb, prejudice, learned method, intuition, unconscious dictates, or combinations thereof, to call upon the appropriate sub-process capabilities with a particular sequence and timing. An executive process (i.e., the exercise of an executive capability) involves such sub-processes as planning, selecting, and supervising, and it is really the executive processes that embody all of the methodology in the H-LAM/T system."/>
        <outline hs:nid="052" text="To illustrate the capability-hierarchy features of our conceptual framework, let us consider an artifact innovation appearing directly within the relatively low-order capability for composing and modifying written text, and see how this can affect a (or, for instance, your) hierarchy of capabilities.  Suppose you had a new writing machine--think of it as a high-speed electric typewriter with some special features. You could operate its keyboard to cause it to write text much as you could use a conventional typewriter.  But the printing mechanism is more complicated; besides printing a visible character at every stroke, it adds special encoding features by means of invisible selective components in the ink and special shaping of the character."/>
        <outline hs:nid="053" text="As an auxiliary device, there is a gadget that is held like a pencil and, instead of a point, has a special sensing mechanism that you can pass over a line of the special printing from your writing machine (or one like it). The signals which this reading stylus sends through the flexible connecting wire to the writing machine are used to determine which characters are being sensed and thus to cause the automatic typing of a duplicate string of characters. An information-storage mechanism in the writing machine permits you to sweep the reading stylus over the characters much faster than the writer can type; the writer will catch up with you when you stop to think about what word or string of words should be duplicated next, or while you reposition the straightedge guide along which you run the stylus."/>
        <outline hs:nid="054" text="This writing machine would permit you to use a new process of composing text. For instance, trial drafts could rapidly be composed from re-arranged excerpts of old drafts, together with new words or passages which you stop to type in. Your first draft could represent a free outpouring of thoughts in any order, with the inspection of foregoing thoughts continuously stimulating new considerations and ideas to be entered. If the tangle of thoughts represented by the draft became too complex, you would compile a reordered draft quickly. It would be practical for you to accommodate more complexity in the trails of thought you might build in search of the path that suits your needs."/>
        <outline hs:nid="055" text="You can integrate your new ideas more easily, and thus harness your creativity more continuously, if you can quickly and flexibly change your working record. If it is easier to update any part of your working record to accommodate new developments in thought or circumstance, you will find it easier to incorporate more complex procedures in your way of doing things.  This will probably allow you to accommodate the extra burden associated with, for instance, keeping and using special files whose contents are both contributed to and utilized by any current work in a flexible manner--which in turn enables you to devise and use even-more complex procedures to better harness your talents in your particular working situation."/>
        <outline hs:nid="056" text="The important thing to appreciate here is that a direct new innovation in one particular capability can have far-reaching effects throughout the rest of your capability hierarchy. A change can propagate up through the capability hierarchy; higher-order capabilities that can utilize the initially changed capability can now reorganize to take special advantage of this change and of the intermediate higher-capability changes. A change can propagate &lt;i&gt;down&lt;/i&gt; through the hierarchy as a result of new capabilities at the high level and modification possibilities latent in lower levels.  These latent capabilities may previously have been unusable in the hierarchy and become usable because of the new capability at the higher level."/>
        <outline hs:nid="057" text="The writing machine and its flexible copying capability would occupy you for a long time if you tried to exhaust the reverberating chain of associated possibilities for making useful innovations within your capability hierarchy. This one innovation could trigger a rather extensive redesign of this hierarchy; your way of accomplishing many of your tasks would change considerably. Indeed this process characterizes the sort of evolution that our intellect-augmentation means have been undergoing since the first human brain appeared."/>
        <outline hs:nid="058" text="To our objective of deriving orientation about possibilities for actively pursuing an increase in human intellectual effectiveness, it is important to realize that we must be prepared to pursue such new- possibility chains throughout the &lt;i&gt;entire&lt;/i&gt; capability hierarchy (calling for a system approach). It is also important to realize that we must be oriented to the &lt;i&gt;synthesis&lt;/i&gt; of new capabilities from reorganization of other capabilities, both old and new, that exist throughout the hierarchy (calling for a &quot;system-engineering&quot; approach)."/>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="059" text="B. THE BASIC PERSPECTIVE">
        <outline hs:nid="060" text="Individuals who operate effectively in our culture have already been considerably &quot;augmented.&quot; Basic human capabilities for sensing stimuli, performing numerous mental operations, and for communicating with the outside world, are put to work in our society within a system--an H-LAM/T system--the individual augmented by the language, artifacts, and methodology in which he is trained. Furthermore, we suspect that improving the effectiveness of the individual as he operates in our society should be approached as a system-engineering problem--that is, the H-LAM/T system should be studied as an interacting whole from a synthesis-oriented approach."/>
        <outline hs:nid="061" text="This view of the system as an interacting whole is strongly bolstered by considering the repertoire hierarchy of process capabilities that is structured from the basic ingredients within the H-LAM/T system. The realization that any potential change in language, artifact, or methodology has importance only relative to its use within a process' and that a new process capability appearing anywhere within that hierarchy can make practical a new consideration of latent change possibilities in many other parts of the hierarchy--possibilities in either language, artifacts, or methodology--brings out the strong interrelationship of these three augmentation means."/>
        <outline hs:nid="062" text="Increasing the effectiveness of the individual's use of his basic capabilities is a problem in redesigning the changeable parts of a system. The system is actively engaged in the continuous processes (among others) of developing comprehension within the individual and of solving problems; both processes are subject to human motivation, purpose, and will. To redesign the system's capability for performing these processes means redesigning all or part of the repertoire hierarchy. To redesign a structure, we must learn as much as we can of what is known about the basic materials and components as they are utilized within the structure; beyond that, we must learn how to view, to measure, to analyze, and to evaluate in terms of the functional whole and its purpose. In this particular case, no existing analytic theory is by itself adequate for the purpose of analyzing and evaluating over-all system performance; pursuit of an improved system thus demands the use of &lt;i&gt;experimental&lt;/i&gt; methods."/>
        <outline hs:nid="063" text="It need not bew just the very sophisticated or formal process capabilities that are added or modified in this redesign. Essentially any of the processes utilized by a representative human today--the processes that he thinks of when he looks ahead to his day's work--are composite processes of the sort that involve external composing and manipulating of symbols (text, sketches, diagrams, lists, etc.). Many of the external composing and manipulating (modifying, rearranging) processes serve such characteristically &quot;human&quot; activities as playing with forms and relationships to ask what develops, cut- and-try multiple-pass development of an idea, or listing items to reflect on and then rearranging and extending them as thoughts develop."/>
        <outline hs:nid="064" text="Existing, or near-future, technology could certainly provide our professional problem-solvers with the artifacts they need to have for duplicating and rearranging text before their eyes, quickly and with a minimum of human effort. Even ao apparently minor an advance could yield total changes in an individual's repertoire hierarchy that would represent a great increase in over-all effectivenesa. Normally the necessary equipment would enter the market slowly; changes from the expected would be small, people would change their ways of doing things a little at a time, and only gradually would their accumulated changes create markets for more radical versions of the equipment. Such an evolutionary process has been typical of the way our repertoire hierarchies have grown and formed. "/>
        <outline hs:nid="065" text="But an active research effort, aimed at exploring and evaluating poasible integrated changes throughout the repertoire hierarchy, could greatly accelerate this evolutionary process. The reaearch effort could guide the product development of new artifacts toward taking long-range meaningful steps; simultaneously competitively minded individuals who would respond to demonstrated methods for achieving greater personal effectiveness would create a market for the more radical equipment innovations. The guided evolutionary process could be expected to be considerably more rapid than the traditional one."/>
        <outline hs:nid="066" text="The category of &quot;more radical innovations&quot; includes the digital computer as a tool for the personal use of an individual. Here there is not only promise of great flexibility in the composing and rearranging of text and diagrams before the individual's eyes but also promise of many other process capabilities that can be integrated into the H-LAM/T system's repertoire hierarchy."/>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="067" text="C. DETAILED DISCUSSION OF THE H-LAM/T SYSTEM">
        <outline hs:nid="068" text="1. The Source of Intelligence">
          <outline hs:nid="069" text="When one looks at a computer system   that is doing a very complex job, he sees on the surface a   machine that can execute some extremely sophisticated   processes. If he is a layman, his concept of what provides   this sophisticated capability may endow the machine with a   mysterious power to sweep information through perceptive and   intelligent synthetic thinking devices. Actually, this   sophisticated capability results from a very clever   organizational hierarchy so that pursuit of the source of   intelligence within this system would take one down through   layers of functional and physical organization that become   successively more primitive."/>
          <outline hs:nid="070" text="To be more specific, we can begin at   the top and list the major levels down through which we would   pass if we successively decomposed the functional elements of   each level in search of the &quot;source of intelligence.&quot; A   programmer could take us down through perhaps three levels   (depending upon the sophistication of the total process being   executed by the computer) perhaps depicting the organization   at each level with a flow chart. The first level down would   organize functions corresponding to statements in a   problem-oriented language (e.g., ALGOL or COBOL), to achieve   the desired over-all process. The second level down would   organize lesser functions into the processes represented by   first-level statements. The third level would perhaps show how   the basic machine commands (or rather the processes which they   represent) were organized to achieve each of the functions of   the second level."/>
          <outline hs:nid="071" text="Then a machine designer could take   over, and with a block diagram of the computer's organization   he could show us (Level 4) how the different hardware units   (e.g., random-access storage, arithmetic registers, adder,   arithmetic control) are organized to provide the capability of   executing sequences of the commands used in Level 3. The logic   designer could then give us a tour of Level 5, also using   block diagrams, to show us how such hardware elements as pulse   gates, flip-flops' and AND, OR, and NOT circuits can be   organized into networks giving the functions utilized at Level   4.  For Level 6 a circuit engineer could show us diagrams   revealing how components such as transistors, resistors,   capacitors, and diodes can be organized into modular networks   that provide the functions needed for the elements of Level   5."/>
          <outline hs:nid="072" text="Device engineers and physicists of   different kinds could take us down through more layers. But   rather soon we have crossed the boundary between what is   man-organized and what is nature-organized, and are ultimately   discussing the way in which a given physical phenomenon is   derived from the intrinsic organization of sub-atomic   particles, with our ability to explain succeeding layers   blocked by the exhaustion of our present human   comprehension."/>
          <outline hs:nid="073" text="If we then ask ourselves where that   intelligence is embodied, we are forced to concede that it is   elusively distributed throughout a hierarchy of functional   processes--a hierarchy whose foundation extends down into   natural processes below the depth of our comprehension. If   there is any one thing upon which this 'intelligence depends'   it would seem to be &lt;i&gt;organization&lt;/i&gt;.  The biologists and   physiologists use a term &quot;synergism&quot; to designate (from  &lt;i&gt;Webster's Unabridged Dictionary&lt;/i&gt;, Second Edition) the   &quot;...cooperative action of discrete agencies such that the   total effect is greater than the sum of the two effects taken   independently...&quot; This term seems directly applicable here,   where we could say that synergism is our most likely candidate   for representing the actual source of intelligence"/>
          <outline hs:nid="074" text="Actually, each of the social, life, or   physical phenomena we observe about us would seem to derive   from a supporting hierarchy of organized functions (or   processes), in which the synergistic principle gives increased   phenomenological sophistication to each succeedingly higher   level of organization.  In particular, the intelligence of a   human being, derived ultimately from the characteristics of   individual nerve cells, undoubtedly results from   synergism."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="075" text="2. Intelligence Amplification">
          <outline hs:nid="076" text="It has been jokingly suggested several   times during the course of this study that what we are seeking   is an &quot;intelligence amplifier.&quot; (The term is attributed   originally to W. Ross Ashby (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-2&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-3&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;).  At first this term was rejected   on the grounds that in our view one's only hope was to make a   better match between existing human intelligence and the   problems to be tackled, rather than in making man more   intelligent.  But deriving the concepts brought out in the   preceding section has shown us that indeed this term does seem   applicable to our objective."/>
          <outline hs:nid="077" text="Accepting the term &quot;intelligence   amplification&quot; does not imply any attempt to increase native   human intelligence. The term &quot;intelligence amplification&quot;   seems applicable to our goal of augmenting the human intellect   in that the entity to be produced will exhibit more of what   can be called intelligence than an unaided human could; we   will have amplified the intelligence of the human by   organizing his intellectual capabilities into higher levels of   synergistic structuring. What possesses the amplified   intelligence is the resulting H-LAM/T system, in which the   LAM/T augmentation means represent the amplifier of the   human's intelligence."/>
          <outline hs:nid="078" text="In amplifying our intelligence, we are   applying the principle of synergistic structuring that was   followed by natural evolution in developing the basic human   capabilities. What we have done in the development of our   augmentation means is to construct a superstructure that is a   synthetic extension of the natural structure upon which it is   built. In a very real sense, as represented by the steady   evolution of our augmentation means, the development of   &quot;artificial intelligence&quot; has been going on for centuries."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="079" text="3. Two-Domain System">
          <outline hs:nid="080" text="The human and the artifacts are the   only physical components in the H-LAM/T system. It is upon   their capabilities that the ultimate capability of the system   will depend. This was implied in the earlier statement that   every composite process of the system decomposes ultimately   into explicit-human and explicit-artifact processes. There are   thus two separate domains of activity within the H-LAM/T   system: that represented by the human, in which all   explicit-human processes occur; and that represented by the   artifacts, in which all explicit-artifact processes occur. In   any composite process, there is cooperative interaction   between the two domains, requiring interchange of energy (much   of it for information exchange purposes only). Figure 1   depicts this two domain concept and embodies other concepts   discussed below.">
            <outline hs:nid="081" text="&lt;img src=&quot;figures/augmentinghumanintellect/fig1.gif&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The Two Sides of the H-LAM/T System"/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="082" text="Where a complex machine represents the   principal artifact with which a human being cooperates, the   term &quot;man-machine interface&quot; has been used for some years to   represent the boundary across which energy is exchanged   between the two domains. However, the &quot;man-artifact interface&quot;   has existed for centuries, ever since humans began using   artifacts and executing composite processes."/>
          <outline hs:nid="083" text="Exchange across this &quot;interface&quot;   occurs when an explicit-human process is coupled to an   explicit-artifact process. Quite often these coupled processes   are designed for just this exchange purpose, to provide a   functional match between other explicit-human and   explicit-artifact processes buried within their respective   domains that do the more significant things. For instance, the   finger and hand motions (explicit human processes) activate   key-linkage motions in the typewriter (couple to   explicit-artifact processes).  But these are only part of the   matching processes between the deeper human processes that   direct a given word to be typed and the deeper artifact   processes that actually imprint the ink marks on the   paper."/>
          <outline hs:nid="084" text="The outside world interacts with our   H-LAM/T system by the exchange of energy with either the individual or his artifact. Again, special processes are often designed to accommodate this exchange. However, the direct concern of our present study lies within the system, with the internal processes that are and can be significantly involved in the effectiveness of the &lt;i&gt;system&lt;/i&gt; in developing the human's comprehension and pursuing the human's goals."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="085" text="4. Concepts, Symbols, and a   Hypothesis">
          <outline hs:nid="086" text="Before we pursue further direct   discussion of the H-LAM/T system, let us examine some   background material. Consider the following historical   progression in the development of our intellectual   capabilities:"/>
          <outline hs:nid="" text="">
            <outline hs:nid="087" text="(1) &lt;i&gt;Concept Manipulation&lt;/i&gt;--Humans rose above the lower forms of life by evolving the biological capability for developing abstractions and concepts.  They could manipulate these concepts within their minds to a certain extent, and think about situations in the abstract. Their mental capabilities allowed them to develop general concepts from specific instances, predict specific instances from general concepts, associate concepts, remember them, etc.  We speak here of concepts in their raw, unverbalized form. For example, a person letting a door swing shut behind him suddenly visualizes the person who follows him carrying a cup of hot coffee and some sticky pastries.  Of all the aspects of the pending event, the spilling of the coffee and the squashing of the pastry somehow are abstracted immediately, and associated with a concept of personal responsibility and a dislike for these consequences.  But a solution comes to mind immediately as an image of a quick stop and an arm stab back toward the door, with motion and timing that could prevent the collision, and the solution is accepted and enacted. With only non-symbolic concept manipulation, we could probably build primitive shelter, evolve strategies of war and hunt, play games, and make practical jokes. But further powers of intellectual effectiveness are implicit in this stage of biological evolution (the same stage we are in today)."/>
            <outline hs:nid="088" text="(2) &lt;i&gt;Symbol Manipulation&lt;/i&gt;--Humans made another great step forward when they learned to represent particular concepts in their minds with specific symbols. Here we temporarily disregard communicative speech and writing, and consider only the direct value to the &lt;i&gt;individual&lt;/i&gt; of being able to do his heavy thinking by mentally manipulating symbols instead of the more unwieldly concepts which they represent. Consider, for instance, the mental difficulty involved in herding twenty- seven sheep if, instead of remembering one cardinal number and occasionally counting, we had to remember what each sheep looked like, so that if the flock seemed too small we could visualize each one and check whether or not it was there."/>
            <outline hs:nid="089" text="(3) &lt;i&gt;Manual, External, Symbol Manipulation&lt;/i&gt;--Another significant step toward harnessing the biologically evolved mental capabilities in pursuit of comprehension and problem solutions came with the development of the means for externalizing some of the symbol-manipulation activity, particularly in graphical representation. This supplemented the individual's memory and ability to visualize. (We are not concerned here with the value derived from human cooperation made possible by speech and writing, both forms of external symbol manipulation. We speak of the manual means of making graphical representations of symbols--a stick and sand, pencil and paper and eraser, straight edge or compass, and so on.) It is principally this kind of means for external symbol manipulation that has been associated with the evolution of the individual's present way of doing his concept manipulation (thinking)."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="090" text="It is undoubtedly true that concepts which people found useful ended up being symbolized in their   language, and hence that the evolution of language was   affected by the concepts the people developed and   used. However, Korzybski &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-4&quot;&gt;(4)&lt;/a&gt; and  Whorf &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-5&quot;&gt;(5)&lt;/a&gt; (among others) have   argued that the language we use affects our thinking to a   considerable extent. They say that a lack of words for some   types of concepts makes it hard to express those concepts, and   thus decreases the likelihood that we will learn much about   them. If this is so, then once a language has begun to grow   and be used, it would seem reasonable to suspect that the   language also affects the evolution of the new concepts to be   expressed in that language."/>
          <outline hs:nid="091" text="Apparently there are counter-arguments   to this; e.g., if a concept needs to be used often but its   expression is difficult, then the language will evolve to ease   the situation. However, the studies of the past decade into   what are called &quot;self-organizing&quot; systems seem to be revealing   that subtle relationships among its interacting elements can   significantly influence the course of evolution of such a   system. If this is true, and if language is (as it seems to   be) a part of a selforganizing system, then it seems probable   that the state of a language at a given time strongly affects   its own evolution to a succeeding state."/>
          <outline hs:nid="092" text="For our conceptual framework, we tend   to favor the view that a language does exert a force in its   own evolution. We observe that the shift over the last few   centuries in matters that are of daily concern to the   individual has necessarily been forced into the framework of   the language existing at the time, with alterations generally   limited to new uses for old words, or the coining of new   words. The English language since Shakespeare has undergone no   alteration comparable to the alteration in the cultural   environment; if it had, Shakespeare would no longer be   accessible to us. Under such evolutionary conditions, it would   seem unlikely that the language we now use provides the best   possible service to our minds in pursuing comprehension and   solving problems. It seems very likely that a more useful   language form can be devised."/>
          <outline hs:nid="093" text="The Whorfian hypothesis states that   the world view of a culture is limited by the structure of the   language which that culture uses. But there seems to be   another factor to consider in the evolution of language and   human reasoning ability. We offer the following hypothesis,   which is related to the Whorfian hypothesis: Both the language   used by a culture, and the capability for effective   intellectual activity are directly affected during their   evolution by the means by which individuals control the   external manipulation of symbols. (For identification, we will   refer to this as the Neo-Whorfian hypothesis.) "/>
          <outline hs:nid="094" text="If the Neo-Whorfian hypothesis could   be proved readily, and if we could see how our means of   externally manipulating symbols influence both our language   and our way of thinking, then we would have a valuable   instrument for studying human-augmentation possibilities. For   the sake of discussion, let us assume the Neo-Whorfian   hypothesis to be true, and see what relevant deductions can be   made."/>
          <outline hs:nid="095" text="If the means evolved for an   individual's external manipulation of his thinking-aid symbols   indeed directly affect the way in which he thinks, then the   original Whorfian hypothesis would offer an added effect. The   direct effect of the external-symbol-manipulation means upon   language would produce an indirect effect upon the way of   thinking via the Whorfian-hypothesis linkage. There would then   be two ways for the manner in which our external symbol   manipulation was done to affect our thinking."/>
          <outline hs:nid="096" text="One way of viewing the H-LAM/T system   changes that we contemplate--specifically, integrating the   capabilities of a digital computer into the intellectual   activity of individual humans--is that we are introducing new   and extremely advanced means for externally manipulating   symbols. We then want to determine the useful modifications in   the language and in the way of thinking that could   result. This suggests a fourth stage to the evolution of our   individual-human intellectual capability: "/>
          <outline hs:nid="" text="">
            <outline hs:nid="097" text="(4) &lt;i&gt;Automated external symbol manipulation&lt;/i&gt;--In this stage, symbols with which the     human represents the concepts he is manipulating can be     arranged before his eyes, moved, stored, recalled, operated     upon according to extremely complex rules--all in very rapid     response to a minimum amount of information supplied by the     human, by means of special cooperative technological     devices. In the limit of what we might now imagine, this     could be a computer, with which we could communicate rapidly     and easily, coupled to a three-dimensional color display     within which it could construct extremely sophisticated     images--with the computer being able to execute a wide     variety of processes upon parts or all of these images in     automatic response to human direction. The displays and     processes could provide helpful services--we could imagine     both simple and exotic varieties--and could involve concepts     that we have never yet imagined (as the pregraphic thinker     of Stage 2 would be unable to predict the bar graph, the     process of long division, or a card file system)."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="098" text="These hypotheses imply great richness   in the new evolutionary spaces opened by progressing from   Stage 3 to Stage 4. We would like to study the hypotheses   further, examining their possible manifestations in our   experience, ways of demonstrating their validity, and possible   deductions relative to going to Stage 4."/>
          <outline hs:nid="099" text="In search of some simple ways to   determine what the Neo-Whorfian hypothesis might imply, we   could imagine some relatively straightforward means of   increasing our external symbol-manipulation capability and try   to picture the consequent changes that could evolve in our   language and methods of thinking. Actually, it turned out to   be simpler to invert the problem and consider a change that   would reduce our capability for external symbol   manipulation. This allowed an empirical approach which proved   both simple and effective. We thus performed the following   experiment."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0100" text="Brains of power equal to ours could   have evolved in an environment where the combination of   artifact materials and muscle strengths were so scaled that   the neatest scribing tool (equivalent to a pencil, possible   had a shape and mass as manageable as a brick would be to   us-assuming that our muscles were not specially conditioned to   deal with it. We fastened a pencil to a brick and   experimented. Figure 2 shows the results, compared with   typewriting and ordinary pencil writing. With the brick   pencil, we are slower and less precise. If we want to hurry   the writing, we have to make it larger. Also, writing the   passage twice with the brick-pencil tires the untrained hand   and arm."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0101" text="How would our civilization have   matured if this had been the only manual means for us to use   in graphical manipulation of symbols? For one thing, the   record keeping that enables the organization of commerce and   government would probably have taken a form so different from   what we know that our social structure would undoubtedly have   evolved differently. Also, the effort in doing calculations   and writing down extensive and carefully reasoned argument   would dampen individualexperimentation with sophisticated new   concepts, to lower the rate of learning and the rate of useful   output, and perhaps to discourage a good many people from even   working at extending understanding. The concepts that would   evolve within our culture would thus be different, and very   likely the symbology to represent them would be   different--much more economical of motion in their writing It   thus seems very likely that our thoughts and our language   would be rather directly affected by the particular means used   by our culture for externally manipulating symbols, which   gives little intuitive substantiation to our Neo-Whorfian   hypothesis.">
            <outline hs:nid="0102" text="&lt;img src=&quot;figures/augmentinghumanintellect/fig2.gif&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Experimental Results of Tying a Brick to a Pencil to       &quot;De-Augment&quot; the Individual"/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0103" text="To reflect further upon the   implications of this hypothesis, the following hypothetical   artifact development can be considered, representing a   diiferent type of external symbol manipulation that could have   had considerable effect.  Suppose that our young technology of   a few generations ago had developed an artifact that was   essentially a high speed, semi-automatic table-lookup   device--cheap enough for almost everyone to afford and small   and light enough to be carried on the person. Assume that the   individual cartridges sold by manufacturers (publishers)   contained the look-up information, that one cartridge could   hold the equivalent of an unabridged dictionary, and that a   one-paragraph definition could always be located and displayed   on the face of the device by the average practised individual   in less than three seconds. The fortunes of technological   invention, commercial interest, and public acceptance just   might have evolved something like this."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0104" text="If it were so very easy to look   things up, how would our vocabulary develop, how would our   habits of exploring the intellectual domains of others shift,   how might the sophistication of practical organization mature   (if each person can so quickly and easily look up applicable   rules), how would our education system change to take   advantage of this new external symbol-manipulation capability   of students and teachers (and administrators)?"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0105" text="The significance to our study of the   discussion in this section lies in the perspective it gives to   the ways in which human intellectual effectiveness can be   affected by the particular means used by individuals for their   external symbol manipulation. It seems reasonable to consider   the development of automated external symbol manipulation   means as a next stage in the evolution of our intellectual   power."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0106" text="5. Capability Repertoire Hierarchy">
          <outline hs:nid="0107" text="The concept of our H-LAM/T system   possessing a repertoire of capabilities that is structured in   the form of a hierarchy is most useful in our study.  We shall   use it in the following to tie together a number of   considerations and concepts. There are two points of focus in   considering the design of new repertoire hierarchies: the   materials with which we have to work, and the principles by   which new capability is constructed from these basic   materials."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0108" text="a. Basic Capabilities">
            <outline hs:nid="0109" text="&lt;i&gt;&quot;Materials&quot;&lt;/i&gt; in this context     are those capabilities in the human and in the artifact     domains from which all other capabilities in the repertoire     hierarchy must be constructed. Each such basic capability     represents a type of functional component with which the     system can be built, and a thorough job of redesigning the     system calls for making an inventory of the basic     capabilities available. Because we are exploring for     perspective, and not yet recommending research activities,     we are free to discuss and define in more detail what we     mean by &quot;basic capability&quot;, without regard to the amount of     research involved in making an actual inventory."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0110" text="The two domains, human and     artifact, can be explored separately for their basic     capabilities, In each we can isolate two classes of basic     capability; these classes are distinguished according to     whether or not the capability has been put to use within out     augmentation means. The first class (those in use) can be     found in a methodical manner by analyzing present capability     hierarchies. For example, select a given capability, at any     level in the hierarchy, and ask yourself if it can be     usefully changed by any means that can be given     consideration in the augmentation research contemplated, If     it can, then it is not basic but it can be decomposed into     an eventual set of basic capabilities. As you proceed down     through the hierarchy, you will begin to encounter     capabilities that cannot be usefully changed, and these will     make up your inventory of basic capabilities. Ultimately,     every such recursive decomposition of a given capability in     the hierarchy will find every one of its branching paths     terminated by basic capabilities.  Beginning such     decomposition search with different capabilities in the     hierarchy will eventually uncover all of those basic     capabilities used within that hierarchy or augmentation     system. Many of the branching paths in the decomposition of     a given higher-order capability will terminate in the same     basic capability, since a given basic capability will often     be used within many different higher-order capabilities."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0111" text="Determining the class of basic     capabilities not already utilized within existing     augmentation systems requires a different exploration     method.  Examples of this method occur in technological     research, where analytically oriented researchers search for     new understandings of phenomena that can add to the research     engineer's list of things to be used in the synthesis of     better artifacts."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0112" text="Before this inventorying task can     be pursued in any specific instance, some criteria must be     established as to what possible changes within the H-LAM/T     system can be given serious consideration. For instance,     some research situations might have to disallow changes     which require extensive retraining, or which require     undignified behavior by the human. Other situations might     admit changes requiring years of special training, very     expensive equipment, or the use of special drugs."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0113" text="The capability for performing a     certain finger action, for example, may not be basic in our     sense of the word. Being able to extend the finger a certain     distance would be basic but the strength and speed of a     particular finger motion and its coordination with higher     actions generally are usefully changeable and therefore do     not represent basic capabilities. What would be basic in     this case would perhaps be the processes whereby strength     could be increased and coordinated movement patterns     learned, as well as the basic movement range established by     the mechanical-limit loci of the muscle-tendon-bone     system. Similar capability breakdowns will occur for sensory     and cognitive capabilities."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0114" text="b. Structure Types">
            <outline hs:nid="0115" text="1) General">
              <outline hs:nid="0116" text="The fundamental principle used       in building sophisticated capabilities from the basic       capabilities is structuring--the special type of       structuring (which we have termed synergetic) in which the       organization of a group of elements produces an effect       greater than the mere addition of their individual       effects. Perhaps &quot;purposeful&quot; structuring (or       organization) would serve us as well, but since we aren't       sure yet how the structuring concept must mature for our       needs, we shall tentatively stick with the special       modifier, &quot;synergetic.&quot; We are developing a growing       awareness of the significant and pervasive nature of such       structure within every physical and conceptual thing we       inspect, where the hierarchical form seems almost       universally present as stemming from successive levels of       such organization."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0117" text="The fundamental entities that       are being structured in each and every case seems to be       what we could call processes, where the most basic of       physical processes (involving fields, charges, and momenta       associated with the dynamics of fundamental particles)       appear to be the hierarchical base.  There are dynamic       electro-optical-mechanical processes associated with the       function of our artifacts (as well as metabolic, sensory,       motor) and cognitive processes of the human, which we find       to be relatively fundamental components within the       structure of our H-LAM/T system--and each of these seems       truly to be ultimately based (to our degree of       understanding) upon the above mentioned basic physical       processes. The elements that are organized to give fixed       structural form to our physical objects--e.g., the       &quot;element&quot; of tensile strength of a material-are also       derived from what we could call synergetic structuring of       the most basic physical processes."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0118" text="But at the level of the       capability hierarchy where we wish to work, it seems       useful to us to distinguish several different types of       structuring--even though each type is fundamentally a       structuring of the basic physical processes.  Tentatively       we have isolated five such types--although we are not sure       how many we shall ultimately want to use in considering       the problem of augmenting the human intellect, nor how we       might divide and subdivide these different manifestations       of physical-process structuring. We use the terms &quot;mental       structuring&quot;, &quot;concept structuring&quot;, &quot;symbol structuring&quot;,       &quot;process structuring,&quot; and &quot;physical structuring.&quot;"/>
            </outline>
            <outline hs:nid="0119" text="2) Mental Structuring">
              <outline hs:nid="0120" text="&lt;i&gt;Mental structuring&lt;/i&gt; is       what we call the internal organization of conscious and       unconscious mental images, associations, or concepts (or       whatever it is that is organized within the human mind)       that somehow manages to provide the human with       understanding and the basis for such as judgment,       intuition, inference, and meaningful action with respect       to his environment.  There is a term used in psychology,       cognitive structure, which so far seems to represent just       what we want for our concept of mental structure, but we       will not adopt it until we become more sure of what the       accepted psychological meaning is and of what we want for       our conceptual framework."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0121" text="For our present purpose, it is       irrelevant to worry over what the fundamental mental       &quot;things&quot; being structured are, or what mechanisms are       accomplishing the structuring or making use of what has       been structured.  We feel reasonably safe in assuming that       learning involves some kind of meaningful organization       within the brain, and that whatever is so organized or       structured represents the operating model of the       individual's universe to the mental mechanisms that derive       his behavior. And further, our assumption is that when the       human in our H/LAM system makes the key decision or action       that leads to the solution of a complex problem, it will       stem from the state of his mental structure at that       time. In this view then, the basic purpose of the system's       activity on that problem up to that point has been to       develop his mental structure to the state from which the       mental mechanisms could derive the key action."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0122" text="Our school systems attest that       there are specific experiences that can be given to a       human that will result in development of his mental       structure to the point where the behavior derived there       from by his mental mechanisms shows us that he has gained       new comprehension--in other words, we can do a certain       amount from outside the human toward developing his mental       structure.  Independent students and researchers also       attest that internally directed behavior on the part of an       individual can directly aid his structure-building       process."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0123" text="We don't know whether a mental       structure is developed in a manner analogous to (a)       development of a garden, where one provides a good       environment, plants the seeds, keeps competing weeds and       injurious pests out, but otherwise has to let natural       processes take their course, or to (b) development of a       basketball team, where much exercise of skills, patterns,       and strategies must be provided so that natural processes       can slowly knit together an integration, or to (c)       development of a machine, where carefully formed elements       are assembled in a precise, planned manner so that natural       phenomena can immediately yield planned function. We don't       know the processes, but we can and have developed       empirical relationships between the experiences given a       human and the associated manifestations of developing       comprehension and capability, and we see the near-future       course of the research toward augmenting the human's       intellect as depending entirely upon empirical findings       (past and future) for the development of better means to       serve the development and use of mental structuring in the       human."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0124" text="We don't mean to imply by this       that we renounce theories of mental processes.  What we       mean to emphasize is that pursuit of our objective need       not wait upon the understanding of the mental processes       that accomplish (what we call) mental structuring and that       derive behavior therefrom. It would be to ignore the       emphases of our own conceptual framework not to make       fullest use of any theory that provided a working       explanation for a group of empirical data. What's more,       our entire conceptual framework represents the first pass       at a &quot;theoretical model with which to organize our       thinking and action.&quot;"/>
            </outline>
            <outline hs:nid="0125" text="3) Concept Structuring">
              <outline hs:nid="0126" text="Within our framework we have       developed the working assumption that the manner in which       we seem to be able to provide experiences that favor the       development of our mental structures is based upon       concepts as a &quot;medium of exchange.&quot; We view a concept as a       tool that can be grasped and used by the mental       mechanisms, that can be composed, interpreted, and used by       the natural mental substances and processes. The grasping       and handling done by these mechanisms can often be       facilitated if the concept is given an explicit &quot;handle&quot;       in the form of a representative symbol.  Somehow the       mental mechanisms can learn to manipulate images (or       something) of symbols in a meaningful way and remain       calmly confident that the associated conceptual       manipulations are within call."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0127" text="Concepts seem to be       structurable, in that a new concept can be composed of an       organization of established concepts. For present       purposes, we can view a &lt;i&gt;concept structure&lt;/i&gt; as       something which we might try to develop on paper for       ourselves or work with by conscious thought processes, or       as something which we try to communicate to one another in       serious discussion.  We assume that, for a given unit of       comprehension to be imparted, there is a concept structure       (which can be consciously developed and displayed) that       can be presented to an individual in such a way that it is       mapped into a corresponding mental structure which       provides the basis for that individual's &quot;comprehending&quot;       behavior. Our working assumption also considers that some       concept structures would be better for this purpose than       others, in that they would be more easily mapped by the       individual into workable mental structures, or in that the       resulting mental structures enable a higher degree of       comprehension and better solutions to problems, or       both."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0128" text="A concept structure often grows       as part of a cultural evolution--either on a large scale       within a large segment of society, or on a small scale       within the activity domain of an individual. But it is       also something that can be directly designed or modified,       and a basic hypothesis of our study is that better concept       structures can be developed-- structures that when mapped       into a human's mental structure will significantly improve       his capability to comprehend and to find solutions within       his complex-problem situations."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0129" text="A natural language provides its       user with a readymade structure of concepts that       establishes a basic mental structure, and that allows       relatively flexible, general-purpose concept       structuring. Our concept of language as one of the basic       means for augmenting the human intellect embraces all of       the concept structuring which the human may make use       of."/>
            </outline>
            <outline hs:nid="0130" text="4) Symbol Structuring">
              <outline hs:nid="0131" text="The other important part of our       &quot;language&quot; is the way in which concepts are       represented--the symbols and &lt;i&gt;symbol structures&lt;/i&gt;. Words structured into phrases, sentences,       paragraphs, monographs--charts, lists, diagrams, tables,       etc. A given structure of concepts can be represented by       any of an infinite number of different symbol structures,       some of which would be much better than others for       enabling the human perceptual and cognitive apparatus to       search out and comprehend the conceptual matter of       significance and/or interest to the human. For instance, a       concept structure involving many numerical data would       generally be much better represented with Arabic rather       than Roman numerals and quite likely a graphic structure       would be better than a tabular structure."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0132" text="But it is not only the &lt;i&gt;form&lt;/i&gt; of a symbol structure that is important.  A problem       solver is involved in a stream of conceptual activity       whose course serves his mental needs of the moment. The       sequence and nature of these needs are quite variable, and       yet for each need he may benefit significantly from a form       of symbol structuring that is uniquely efficient for that       need."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0133" text="Therefore, besides the forms of       symbol structures that can be constructed and portrayed,       we are very much concerned with the speed and flexibility       with which one form can be transfcrmed into another, and       with which new material can be located and portrayed."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0134" text="We are generally used to       thinking of our symbol structures as a pattern of marks on       a sheet of paper. When we want a different       symbol-structure view, we think of shifting our point of       attention on the sheet, or moving a new sheet into       position. But another kind of view might be obtained by       extracting and ordering all statements in the local text       that bear upon consideration A of the argument--or by       replacing all occurrences of specified esoteric words by       one's own definitions. This sort of &quot;view generation&quot;       becomes quite feasible with a computer-controlled display       system, and represents a very significant capability to       build upon."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0135" text="With a computer manipulating       our symbols and generating their portrayals to us on a       display, we no longer need think of our looking at &lt;i&gt;the&lt;/i&gt; symbol structure which is stored--as we think of looking at &lt;i&gt;the&lt;/i&gt; symbol structures stored in       notebooks, memos, and books. What the computer actually       stores need be none of our concern, assuming that it can       portray symbol structures to us that are consistent with       the form in which we think our information is       structured."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0136" text="A given concept structure can       be represented with a symbol structure that is completely       compatible with the computer's internal way of handling       symbols, with all sorts of characteristics and       relationships given explicit identifications that the user       may never directly see. In fact, this structuring has       immensely greater potential for accurately mapping a       complex concept structure than does a structure an       individual would find it practical to construct or use on       paper."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0137" text="The computer can transform back       and forth between the two-dimensional portrayal on the       screen, of some limited view of the total structure, and       the aspect of the n-dimensional internal image that       represents this &quot;view&quot;.  If the human adds to or modifies       such a &quot;view,&quot; the computer integrates the change into the       internal-image symbol structure (in terms of the       computer's favored symbols and structuring) and thereby       automatically detects a certain proportion of his possible       conceptual inconsistencies."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0138" text="Thus, inside this instrument       (the computer) there is an internal-image, computer-symbol       structure whose convolutions and multi-dimensionality we       can learn to shape to represent to hitherto unattainable       accuracy the concept structure we might be building or       working with. This interna1 structure may have a form that       is nearly incomprehensible to the direct inspection of a       human (except in minute chunks)."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0139" text="But let the human specify to       the instrument his particular conceptual need of the       moment, relative to this internal image. Without       disrupting its own internal reference structure in the       slightest, the computer will effectively stretch, bend,       fold, extract, and cut as it may need in order to assemble       an internal substructure that is its respons, structured       in its own internal way. With the set of standard       translation rules appropriate to the situation, it       portrays to the human via its display a symbol structure       designed for &lt;i&gt;his&lt;/i&gt; quick and accurate perception and       comprehension of the conceptual matter pertinent to this       internally composed substructure."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0140" text="No longer does the human work       on stiff and limited symbol structures, where much of the       conceptual content can only be implicitly designated in an       indirect and distributed fashion. These new ways of       working are basically available with today's       technology--we have but to free ourselves from some of our       limiting views and begin experimenting with compatible       sets of structure forms and processes for human concepts,       human symbols, and machine symbols."/>
            </outline>
            <outline hs:nid="0141" text="5) Process Structuring">
              <outline hs:nid="0142" text="Essentially everything that       goes on within the H-LAM/T system and that is of direct       interest here involves the manipulation of concept and       symbol structures in service to the mental       structure. Therefore, the processes within the H-LAM/T       system that we are most interested in developing are those       that provide for the manipulation of all three types of       structure.  This brings us to the fourth category of       structuring, &lt;i&gt;process&lt;/i&gt; structuring."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0143" text="As we are currently using it,       the term includes the organization, study, modification,       and execution of processes and process structures. Whereas       concept structuring and symbol structuring together       represent the language component of our augmentation       means, process structuring represents the methodology       component (plus a little more, actually).  There has been       enough previous discussion of process structures that we       need not describe the notion here, beyond perhaps an       example or two. The individual processes (or actions) of       my hands and fingers have to be cooperatively organized if       the typewriter is to do my bidding. My successive actions       throughout my working day are meant to cooperate toward a       certain over-all professional goal."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0144" text="Many of the process structures       are applied to the task of organizing, executing,       supervising, and evaluating other process structures. Many       of them are applied to the formation and manipulation of       symbol structures (the purpose of which will often be to       support the conceptual labor involved in process       structuring)."/>
            </outline>
            <outline hs:nid="0145" text="6) Physical Structuring">
              <outline hs:nid="0146" text="&lt;i&gt;Physical structuring&lt;/i&gt;, the last of the five types which we currently use in our       conceptual framework, is nearly self-explanatory. It       pretty well represents the artifact component of our       augmentation means, insofar as their actual physical       construction is concerned."/>
            </outline>
            <outline hs:nid="0147" text="7) Interdependence and       Regeneration">
              <outline hs:nid="0148" text="A very important feature to be       noted from the discussion in this section bears upon the       interdependence among the various types of structuring       which are involved in the H-LAM/T system, where the       capability for doing each type of structuring is dependent       upon the capability for doing one or more of the other       types of structuring. (Assuming that the physical       structuring of the system remains basically unchanged       during the system's operation, we exclude its dependence       upon other factors in this discussion.)"/>
              <outline hs:nid="0149" text="This interdependence actually       has a cyclic, regenerative nature to it which is very       significant to us. We have seen how the capability for       mental structuring is finally dependent, down the chain,       upon the process structuring (human, artifact, composite)       that enables symbol-structure manipulation.  But it also       is evident that the process structuring is dependent not       only upon basic human and artifact process capabilities,       but upon the ability of the human to learn how to execute       processes--and no less important, upon the ability of the       human to select, organize, and modify processes from his       repertoire to structure a higher-order process that he can       execute.  Thus, a capability for structuring and executing       processes is partially dependent upon the human's mental       structuring, which in turn is partially dependent upon his       process structuring (through concept and symbol       structuring), which is partially dependent upon his mental       structuring, etc."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0150" text="All of this means that a       significant improvement in symbol-structure manipulation       through better process structuring (initially perhaps       through much better artifacts) should enable us to develop       improvements in concept and mental-structure manipulations       that can in turn enable us to organize and execute       symbol-manipulation processes of increased power. To most       people who initially consider the possibilities for       computer-like devices augmenting the human intellect, it       is only the one-pass improvement that comes to mind, which       presents a picture that is relatively barren compared to       that which emerges when one considers this regenerative       interaction."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0151" text="We can confidently expect the       development of much more powerful concepts pertaining to       the manner in which symbol structures can be manipulated       and portrayed, and correspondingly more complex       manipulation processes that in the first pass would have       been beyond the human's power to organize and execute       without the better symbol, concept, and mental structuring       which his augmented system provided him. These new       concepts and processes, beyond our present capabilities to       use and thus never developed, will provide a tremendous       increased-capability payoff in the future development of       our augmentation means."/>
            </outline>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0152" text="c. Roles and Levels">
            <outline hs:nid="0153" text="In the repertoire hierarchy of     capabilities possessed by the H-LAM/T system, the human     contributes many types of capability that represent a wide     variety of roles. At one time or another he will be the     policy maker, the goal setter, the performance supervisor,     the work scheduler, the professional specialist, the clerk,     the janitor, the entrepreneur, and the proprietor (or at     least a major stockholder) of the system. In the midst of     some complex process, in fact, he may well be playing     several roles concurrently--or at least have the     responsibility of the roles. For instance, usually he must     be aware of his progress toward a goal (supervisor), he must     be alert to the possibilities for changing the goal (policy     maker, planner), and he must keep records for these and     other roles (clerk)."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0154" text="Consider a given capability (Capability 1) at some level in the repertoire hierarchy. There seems to be a sort of standard grouping of     lower-order capabilities from which this is composed, and     these exist in two classes--what we might call the &lt;i&gt;executive&lt;/i&gt; class and what we might call the &lt;i&gt;direct-contributive&lt;/i&gt; class. In the executive class of     capabilities we find those used for comprehending, planning,     and executing the process represented by Capability 1. In     the direct-contributive class we find the capabilities     organized by the executive class toward the direct     realization of Capability 1. For example, when my telephone     rings, I execute the direct-contributive processes of     picking up the receiver and saying hello. It was the     executive processes that comprehended the situation,     directed a lower-order executive-process that the receiver     be picked up and, when the receiver was in place (first     process accomplished), directed the next process, the saying     hello. That represents the composition of my capability for     answering the phone."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0155" text="For a low-level capability, such     as that of writing a word with a pencil, both the executive     and the direct-contributive subprocesses during actual     execution would be automatic. This type of automatic     capability need only be summoned by a higher executive     process in order for trained automatic responses to execute     it."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0156" text="At a little higher level of     capability, more of the conscious conceptual and executive     capabilities become involved. To call someone on the     telephone, I must consciously comprehend the need for this     process and how I can execute it, I must consciously pick up     the directory and search for the name and telephone number,     and I must consciously direct the dialing of the number."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0157" text="At a still higher level of     capability, the executive capabilities must have a degree of     power that unaided mental capabilities cannot provide.  In     such a case, one might make a list of steps and check each     item off as it is executed. For an even more complex     process, comprehending the particular situation in which it     is to be executed, even before beginning to plan the     execution, may take months of labor and a very complex     organization of the system's capabilities."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0158" text="Imagining a process as complex as     the last example brings us to the realization that at any     particular moment the H-LAM/T system may be in the middle of     executing a great number of processes. Assume that the human     is in the middle of the process of making a telephone     call. That telephone call is a subprocess in the middle of     the process of calling a committee meeting. But calling a     committee meeting is a subprocess in the middle of the     process of determining a budgetary policy, which is in turn     but a subprocess in the middle of the process of estimating     manpower needs, and so on."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0159" text="Not only does the human need to     play various roles (sometimes concurrently) in the execution     of any given process, but he is playing these roles for the     many concurrent processes that are being executed at     different levels.  This situation is typical for any of us     engaged in reasonably demanding types of professional     pursuits, and yet we have never received explicit training     in optimum ways of carrying out any but a very few of the     roles at a very few of the levels. A well-designed H-LAM/T     system would provide explicit and effective concepts, terms,     equipment, and methods for all these roles, and for their     dynamic coordination."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0160" text="d. Model of Executive     Superstructure">
            <outline hs:nid="0161" text="It is the repertoire hierarchy of     process capabilities upon which the ultimate capability of     the H-LAM/T system rests. This repertoire hierarchy is     rather like a mountain of white-collar talent that sits atop     and controls the talents of the workers. We can illustrate     this executive superstructure by considering it as though it     were a network of contractors and subcontractors in which     each capability in the repertoire hierarchy is represented     by an independent contractor whose mode of operation is to     do the planning, make up specifications, subcontract the     actual work, and supervise the performance of his     subcontractors. This means that each subcontractor does the     same thing in his turn. At the bottom of this hierarchy are     those independent contractors who do actual &quot;production     work.&quot;"/>
            <outline hs:nid="0162" text="If by some magical process the     production workers could still know just what to do and when     to do it even though the superstructure of contractors was     removed from above them, no one would know the     difference. The executive superstructure is necessary     because humans do not operate by magic, but even a necessary     superstructure is a burden. We can readily recognize that     there are many ways to organize and manage such a     superstructure, resulting in vastly different degrees of     efficiency in the application of the workers' talents."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0163" text="Suppose that the activity of the     production workers was of the same nature as the activity of     the different contractors, and that this activity consisted     of gaining comprehension and solving problems. And suppose     that there was only so much applicable talent available to     the total system.  The question now becomes how to     distribute that talent between superstructure and workers to     get the most total production. The efficiency of     organization within the superstructure is now doubly     important so that a minimum of talent in the superstructure     produces a maximum of organizational efficiency in directing     the productivity of the remaining talent."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0164" text="In the situation where talent is     limited, we find a close parallel to our H-LAM/T system in     its pursuit of comprehension and problem solutions.  We     obtain an even closer parallel if we say that the thinking,     planning, supervising, record keeping, etc., for each     contractor is actually done by a single individual for the     whole superstructure, time- sharing his attention and     talents over these many tasks. Today this individual cannot     be depended upon to have any special training for many of     these roles; he is likely to have learned them by cut and     try and by indirect imitation."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0165" text="A complex process is often     executed by the H-LAM/T system in a multi-pass fashion     (i.e., cut and try). In really complex situations,     comprehension and problem solutions do not stand waiting at     the end of a straightforward path; instead, possibilities     open up and plans shift as comprehension grows.  In the     model using a network of contractors, this type of procedure     would entail a great deal of extra work within the     superstructure--each contractor involved in the process     would have the specifications upon which he bid continually     changed, and would continually have to respond to the     changes by restudying the situation, changing his plans,     changing the specifications to his subcontractors, and     changing his records. This is a terrific additional burden,     but it allows a freedom of action that has tremendous     importance to the effectiveness the system exhibits to the     outside world."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0166" text="We could expect significant gains     from automating the H- LAM/T system if a computer could do     nothing more than increase the effectiveness of the     executive processes. More human time, energy, and productive     thought could be allocated to direct-contributive processes,     which would be coordinated in a more sophisticated, flexible     and efficient manner. But there is every reason to believe     that the possibilities for much-improved symbol and process     structuring that would stem from this automation will     directly provide improvements in both the executive and     direct-contributive processes in the system."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0167" text="e. Flexibility in the Executive     Role">
            <outline hs:nid="0168" text="The executive superstructure is a     necessary component in the H-LAM/T system, and there is     finite human capability which must be divided between     executive and direct-contributive activities. An important     aspect of the multi-role activity of the human in the system     is the development and manipulation of the symbol structures     associated with &lt;i&gt;both&lt;/i&gt; his direct-contributive roles     and his executive roles."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0169" text="When the system encounters a     complex situation in which comprehension and problem     solutions are being pursued, the direct-contributive roles     require the development of symbol structures that portray     the concepts involved within the situation. But executive     roles in a complex problem situation also require conceptual     activity--e.g., comprehension, selection, supervision--that     can benefit from well-designed symbol structures and fast,     flexible means for manipulating and displaying them. For     complex processes, the executive problem posed to the human     (of gaining the necessary comprehension and making a good     plan) may be tougher than the problem he faced in the role     of direct-contributive worker. If the flexibility desired     for the process hierarchies (to make room for human     cut-and-try methods) is not to be degraded or abandoned, the     executive activity will have to be provided with fast and     flexible symbol-structuring techniques."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0170" text="The means available to humans     today for developing and manipulating these symbol     structures are both laborious and inflexible. It is hard     enough to develop an initial structure of diagrams and text,     but the amount of effort required to make changes is often     prohibitively great; one settles for inflexibility. Also,     the kind of generous flexibility that would be truly helpful     calls for added symbol structuring just to keep track of the     trials, branches, and reasoning thereto that are involved in     the development of the subject structure; our present     symbol-manipulation means would very soon bog down     completely among the complexities that are involved in being     more than just a little bit flexible."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0171" text="We find that the humans in our     H-LAM/T systems are essential working continuously within a     symbol structure of some sort, shifting their attention from     one structure to another as they guide and execute the     processes that ultimately provide them with the     comprehension and the problem solutions that they seek. This     view increases our respect for the essential importance of     the basic capability of composing and modifying efficient     symbol structures.  Such a capability depends heavily upon     the particular concepts that are isolated and manipulated as     entities, upon the symbology used to represent them, upon     the artifacts that help to manipulate and display the     symbols, and upon the methodology for developing and using     symbol structures. In other words, this capability depends     heavily upon proper language, artifacts, and methodology,     our basic augmentation means."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0172" text="When the course of action must     respond to new comprehension, new insights and new intuitive     flashes of possible explanations or solutions, it will not     be an orderly process. Existing means of composing and     working with symbol structures penalize disorderly processes     very heavily, and it is part of the real promise in the     automated H-LAM/T systems of tomorrow that the human can     have the freedom and power of disorderly processes."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0173" text="f. Compound Effects">
            <outline hs:nid="0174" text="Since many processes in many     levels of the hierarchy are involved in the execution of a     single higher-level process of the system, any factor that     influences process execution in general will have a highly     compounded total effect upon the system's performance. There     are several such factors which merit special attention."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0175" text="Basic human cognitive powers, such     as memory intelligence, or pattern perception can have such     a compounded effect. The augmentation means employed today     have generally evolved among large statistical populations,     and no attempt has been made to fit them to individual needs     and abilities. Each individual tends to evolve his own     variations, but there is not enough mutation and selection     activity, nor enough selection feedback, to permit very     significant changes. A good, automated H-LAM/T system should     provide the opportunity for a significant adaptation of the     augmentation means to individual characteristics. The     compounding effect of fundamental human cognitive powers     suggests further that systems designed for maximum     effectiveness would require that these powers be developed     as fully as possible--by training, special mental tricks,     improved language, new methodology."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0176" text="In the automated system that we     contemplate, the human should be able to draw on     explicit-artifact process capability at many levels in the     repertoire hierarchy; today, artifacts are involved     explicitly in only the lower-order capabilities. In the     future systems, for instance, it should be possible to have     computer processes provide direct and significant help in     his processes at many levels. We thus expect the effect of     the computer in the system to be very much compounded. A     great deal of richness in the future possibilities for     automated H-LAM/T systems is implied here--considerably more     than many people realize who would picture the computer as     just helping them do the things they do now. This type of     compounding is related to the reverberating waves of change     discussed in Section II-A."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0177" text="Another factor can exert this type     of compound effect upon over-all system performance: the     human's unconscious processes. Clinical psychology seems to     provide clear evidence that a large proportion of a human's     everyday activity is significantly mediated or basically     prompted by unconscious mental processes that, although     &quot;natura&quot; in a functional sense, are not rational. The     observable mechanisms of these processes (observable by     another, trained person) includes masking of the     irrationality of the human's actions which are so affected,     so that few of us will admit that our actions might be     irrational, and most of us can construct satisfying     rationales for any action that may be challenged. "/>
            <outline hs:nid="0178" text="Anything that might have so     general an effect upon our mental actions as is implied     here, is certainly a candidate for ultimate consideration in     the continuing development of our intellectual     effectiveness. It may be that the first stages of research     on augmenting the human intellect will have to proceed     without being able to do anything about this problem except     accommodate to it as well as possible. This may be one of     the very significant problems whose solution awaits our     development of increased intellectual effectiveness."/>
          </outline>
        </outline>
      </outline>
    </outline>
    <outline hs:nid="0179" text="III. EXAMPLES AND DISCUSSION">
      <outline hs:nid="0180" text="A. BACKGROUND">
        <outline hs:nid="0181" text="The conceptual structure which we have evolved to orient and guide the pursuit of increasing man's intellectual effectiveness has been des cribed in the foregoing sections in a rather general and abstract fashion. In this section we shall try to develop more concrete images of these concepts, of some of the future possibilities for augmentation, and of the relationship between these different concepts and possibilities."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0182" text="It must be borne in mind that a great deal of study and invention is yet to be done in developing the improved augmentation means that are bound to come, and that the examples which we present in this report are intended only to show what is meant by the generalizations which we use, and to provide a feeling on the part of the reader for the richness and power of the improvements we can likely develop in our augmentation means. Many of the examples are realizable today (in fact, some have been realized) and most of the rest are reasonably straight forward extrapolations into the near future. We predict that what actually develops in the new augmentation means will be consistent with our conceptual framework, but that the particulars will be full of surprises."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0183" text="Each of the examples will show a facet of how the little steps that the human can take with his sensory-mental-motor apparatus can be organized cooperatively with the capabilities of artifacts to accomplish significant things in the way of achieving comprehension and solving problems. This organization, as we have shown in Section II, can be viewed as the five different types of structuring which we outlined, where much of the structuring that goes on in the human's total problem solving activity is for the purpose of building a mental structure which in a way &quot;puts the human up where he can see what is going on and can point the direction to move next.&quot;"/>
        <outline hs:nid="0184" text="An early paper, offering suggestions toward augmenting the human intellect, that fits well and significantly within the framework which we have developed was written by Vannevar Bush &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-6&quot;&gt;(6)&lt;/a&gt; in 1945. Indeed, it fits so well, and states its points so nicely, thst it was deemed appropriate to our purpose here to summarize it in detail and to quote from it at considerable length."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0185" text="1. What Vannevar Bush proposed in   1945">
          <outline hs:nid="0186" text="He wrote as World War II was coming   to an end, and his principal purpose seemed to be to offer new   professional objectives to those scientists who were soon to   be freed from war-motivated research and development. It would   seem that he also wished to induce a general recognition of a   growing problem--storage, retrieval, and manipulation of   information for and by intellectual workers--and to show the   possibilities he foresaw for scientific development of   equipment which could significantly aid such workers in facing   this problem. He summarized the situation: &quot;...There is a   growing mountain of research...The investigator is staggered   by the findings and conclusions of thousands of other workers.   Professionally our methods of transmitting and reviewing the   results of research are generations old...truly significant   attainments become lost in the mass of the   inconsequential...The summation of human experience is being   expanded at a prodigious rate, and the means we use for   threading through the consequent maze to the momentarily   important item is the same as was used in the days of   square-rigged ships.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0187" text="Then he brought out some general   considerations for hope: &quot;.. But there are signs of a change   as new and powerful instrumentalities come into   use...Photocells...advanced photography...thermionic   tubes... cathode ray tubes...relay combinations...there are   plenty of mechanical aids with which to effect a   transformation in scientific records.&quot; And he points out that   devices which we commonly use today--e.g., a calculating   machine or an automobile--would have been impossibly expensive   to produce in earlier eras of our technological   development. &quot;...The world has arrived at an age of cheap   complex devices of great reliability and something is bound to   come of it.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0188" text="In six and a half pages crammed full   of well-based speculations, Bush proceeds to outline enough   plausible artifact and methodology developments to make a very   convincing case for the augmentation of the individual   intellectual worker. Extension of existing photographic   techniques to give each individual a continuously available   miniature camera for recording anything in view and of   interest, and to realize a high-quality 100:1 linear reduction   ratio for micro-record files for these photographs and   published material; voice-recognition equipment (perhaps   requiring a special language) to ease the process of entering   new self-generated material into the written record--these are   to provide the individual with information-generating aid."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0189" text="For the detailed manipulation of   mathematical and logical expressions, Bush projects computing   aids (which have been surpassed by subsequent development)   that allow the individual to exercise a greater proportion of   his time and talents in the tasks of selecting data and the   appropriate transformations and processes which are to be   executed, leaving to the machinery the subsequent   execution. He suggests that new notation for our verbal   symbols (perhaps binary) could allow character recognition   devices to help even further in the information-manipulation   area, and also points out that poor symbolism (&quot;...the   exceedingly crude way in which mathematicians express their   relationships. They employ a symbolism which grew like Topsy   and has little consistency; a strange fact in that most   logical field.&quot;) stands in the way of full realization of   machine help for the manipulations associated with the human's   real time process of mathematical work. And &quot;...Then, on   beyond the strict logic of the mathematician, lies the   application of logic in everyday affairs. We may some day   click off arguments on a machine with the same assurance that   we now enter sales on a cash register.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0190" text="Then &quot; ..So much for the manipulation   of ideas and their insertion into the record. Thus far we seem   to be worse off than before--for we can enormously extend the   record; yet even in its present bulk we can hardly consult   it. This is a much larger matter than merely the extraction of   data for the purposes of scientific research; it involves the   entire process by which man profits by his inheritance of   acquired knowledge The prime action of use is selection, and   here we are halting indeed. There may be millions of fine   thoughts, and the account of the experience on which they are   based, all encased within stone walls of acceptable   architectural form; but if the scholar can get at only one a   week by diligent search, his syntheses are not likely to keep   up with the current scene.&quot; He goes on to discuss possible   developments that could allow very rapid (in the human's time   frame) selection of unit records from a very large file--where   the records could be dry-process photographic micro-images   upon which the user could add lnformation at will."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0191" text="Bush goes on to say, &quot;The real heart   of the matter of selection, however, goes deeper than a lag in   the adoption of mechanisms...Our ineptitude in getting at the   record is largely caused by the artificiality of systems of   indexing.&quot; He observes the power of the associative recall   which human memory exhibits, and proposes that a mechanization   of selection by association could be realized to considerable   advantage. He spends the last two pages (a quarter of his   article) describing a device embodying this capability, and   points out some features of its use and of its likely   effect. This material is so relevant and so well put that I   quote it in its entirety:"/>
          <outline hs:nid="" text="">
            <outline hs:nid="0192" text="&quot;Consider a future device for     individual use, which is a sort of mechanized private file     and library. It needs a name, and to coin one at random,     &quot;memex&quot; will do. A memex is a device in which an individual     stores all his books, records, and communications, and which     is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding     speed and flexibility. It is an enlarged intimate supplement     to his memory."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0193" text="&quot;It consists of a desk, and while     it can presumably be operated from a distance, it is     primarily the piece of furniture at which he works.  On the     top are slanting translucent screens, on which material can     be projected for convenient reading. There is a keyboard,     and sets of buttons and levers.  Otherwise it looks like an     ordinary desk."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0194" text="&quot;In one end is the stored     material. The matter of bulk is well taken care of by     improved microfilm. Only a small part of the interior of the     memex is devoted to storage, the rest to mechanism. Yet if     the user inserted 5000 pages of material a day it would take     him hundreds of years to fill the repository, so he can be     profligate and enter material freely."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0195" text="&quot;Most of the memex contents are     purchased on microfilm ready for insertion. Books of all     sorts, pictures, current periodicals, newspapers, are thus     obtained and dropped into place. Business correspondence     takes the same path. And there is provision for direct     entry. On the top of the memex is a transparent platen. On     this are placed longhand notes, photographs, memoranda, all     sort of things. When one is in place, the depression of a     lever causes it to be photographed onto the next blank space     in a section of the memex film, dry photography being     employed."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0196" text="&quot;There is, of course, provision     for consultation of the record by the usual scheme of     indexing. If the user wishes to consult a certain book, he     taps its code on the keyboard, and the title page of the     book promptly appears before him, projected onto one of his     viewing positions.  Frequently-used codes are mnemonic, so     that he seldom consults his code book; but when he does, a     single tap of a key projects it for his use.  Moreover, he     has supplemental levers. On deflecting one of these levers     to the right he runs through the book before him, each page     in turn being projected at a speed which just allows a     recognizing glance at each. If he deflects it further to the     right, he steps through the book 10 pages at a time; still     further at 100 pages at a time. Deflection to the left gives     him the same control backwards."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0197" text="&quot;A special button transfers him     immediately to the first page of the index. Any given book     of his library can thus be called up and consulted with far     greater facility than if it were taken from a shelf. As he     has several projection positions, he can leave one item in     position while he calls up another. He can add marginal     notes and comments, taking advantage of one possible type of     dry photography, and it could even be arranged so that he     can do this by a stylus scheme, such as is now employed in     the telautograph seen in railroad waiting rooms, just as     though he had the physical page before him."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0198" text="&quot;All this is conventional, except     for the projection forward of present-day mechanisms and     gadgetry. If affords an immediate step, however, to     associative indexing, the basic idea of which is a provision     whereby any item may be caused at will to select immediately     and automatically another. This is the essential feature of     the memex. The process of tying two items together is the     important thing."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0199" text="&quot;When the user is building a     trail, he names it, inserts the name in his code book, and     taps it out on his keyboard. Before him are the two items to     be joined, projected onto adjacent viewing positions. At the     bottom of each there are a number of blank code spaces, and     a pointer is set to indicate one of these on each item. The     user taps a single key, and the items are permanently     joined. In each code space appears the code word.  Out of     view, but also in the code space, is inserted a set of dots     for photocell viewing; and on each item these dots by their     positions designate the index number of the other item."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0200" text="&quot;Thereafter, at any time, when one     of these items is in view, the other can be instantly     recalled merely by tapping a button below the corresponding     code space. Moreover, when numerous items have been thus     joined together to form a trail, they can be reviewed in     turn, rapidly or slowly, by deflecting a lever like that     used for turning the pages of a book. It is exactly as     though the physical items had been gathered together to form     a new book.  It is more than this, for any item can be     joined into numerous trails."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0201" text="&quot;The owner of the memex, let us     say, is interested in the origin and properties of the bow     and arrow. Specifically he is studying why the short Turkish     bow was apparently superior to the English long bow in the     skirmishes of the Crusades. He has dozens of possibly     pertinent books and articles in his memex. First he runs     through an encyclopedia, finds and interesting but sketchy     article, leaves it projected, Next, in a history, he finds     another pertinent item, and ties the two together. Thus he     goes, building a trail of many items. Occasionally he     inserts a comment of his own, either linking it into the     main trail or joining it by a side trail to a particular     item. When it becomes evident that the elastic properties of     available materials had a great deal to do with the bow, he     branches off on a side trail which takes him through     textbooks on elasticity and tables of physical constants. He     inserts a page of longhand analysis of his own. Thus he     builds a trail of his interest through the maze of materials     available to him."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0202" text="&quot;And his trails do not     fade. Several years later, his talk with a friend turns to     the queer ways in which a people resist innovations, even of     vital interest. He has an example, in the fact that the     outranged Europeans still failed to adopt the Turkish     bow. In fact he has a trail on it. A touch brings up the     code book. Tapping a few keys projects the head of the     trail. A lever runs through it at will, stopping at     interesting items, going off on side excursions. It is an     interesting trail, pertinent to the discussion. So he sets a     reproducer in action, photographs the whole trail out, and     passes it to his friend for insertion in his own memex,     there to be linked into the more general trail."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0203" text="&quot;Wholly new forms of     encyclopedias will appear, ready-made with a mesh of     associative trails running through them, ready to be dropped     into the memex and there amplified. The lawyer has at his     touch the associated opinions and decisions of his whole     experience, and of the experience of friends and     authorities. The patent attorney has on call the millions of     issued patents, with familiar trails to every point of his     client's interest.  The physician, puzzled by its patient's     reactions, strikes the trail established in studying an     earlier similar case, and runs rapidly through analogous     case histories, with side references to the classics for the     pertinent anatomy and histology. The chemist, struggling     with the synthesis of an organic compound, has all the     chemical literature before him in his laboratory, with     trails following the analogies of compounds, and side trails     to their physical and chemical behavior."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0204" text="&quot;The historian, with a vast     chronological account of a people, parallels it with a skip     trail which stops only at the salient items, and can follow     at any time contemporary trails which lead him all over     civilization at a particular epoch. There is a new     profession of trail blazers, those who find delight in the     task of establishing useful trails through the enormous mass     of the common record. The inheritance from the master     becomes, not only his additions to the world's record, but     for his disciples the entire scaffolding by which they were     erected."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0205" text="&quot;Thus science may implement the     ways in which man produces, stores, and consults the record     of the race. It might be striking to outline the     instrumentalities of the future more spectacularly, rather     than to stick closely to the methods and elements now known     and undergoing rapid development, as has been done     here. Technical difficulties of all sorts have been ignored,     certainly, but also ignored are means as yet unknown which     may come any day to accelerate technical progress as     violently as did the advent of the thermionic tube. In order     that the picture may not be too commonplace, by reason of     sticking to present-day patterns, it may be well to mention     one such possibility, not to prophesy but merely to suggest,     for prophecy based on extension of the known has substance,     while prophecy founded on the unknown is only a doubly     involved guess."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0206" text="&quot;All our steps in creating or     absorbing material of the record proceed through one of the     senses - the tactile when we touch keys, the oral when we     speak or listen, the visual when we read. Is it not possible     that some day the path may be established more directly?"/>
            <outline hs:nid="0207" text="&quot;We know that when the eye sees,     all the consequent information is transmitted to the brain     by means of electrical vibrations in the channel of the     optic nerve. This is an exact analogy with the electrical     vibrations which occur in the cable of a television set:     they convey the picture from the photocells which see it to     the radio transmitter from which it is broadcast.  We know     further that if we can approach that cable with the proper     instruments, we do not need to touch it; we can pick up     those vibrations by electrical induction and thus discover     and reproduce the scene which is being transmitted, just as     a telephone wire may be tapped for its message."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0208" text="&quot;The impulse which flow in the     arm nerves of a typist convey to her fingers the translated     information which reaches her eye or ear, in order that the     fingers may be caused to strike the proper keys. Might not     these currents be intercepted, either in the original form     in which information is conveyed to the brain, or in the     marvelously metamorphosed form in which they then proceed to     the hand?"/>
            <outline hs:nid="0209" text="&quot;By bone conduction we already     introduce sounds into the nerve channels of the deaf in     order that they may hear. Is it not possible that we may     learn to introduce them without the present cumbersomeness     of first transforming electrical vibrations to mechanical     ones, which the human mechanism promptly transforms back to     the electrical form? With a couple of electrodes on the     skull the encephalograph now produces pen-and-ink traces     which bear some relation to the electrical phenomena going     on in the brain itself. True, the record is unintelligible,     except as it points out certain gross misfunctioning of the     cerebral mechanism; but who would now place bounds on where     such a thing may lead?"/>
            <outline hs:nid="0210" text="&quot;In the outside world, all forms     of intelligence, whether of sound or sight, have been     reduced to the form of varying currents in an electric     circuit in order that they may be transmitted. Inside the     human frame exactly the same sort of process occurs. Must we     always transform to mechanical movements in order to proceed     from one electrical phenomenon to another?  It is a     suggestive thought, but it hardly warrants prediction     without losing touch with reality and immediateness."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0211" text="&quot;Presumably man's spirit should     be elevated if he can better review his shady past and     analyze more completely and objectively his present     problems. He has built a civilization so complex that he     needs to mechanize his record more fully if he is to push     his experiment to its logical conclusion and not merely     become bogged down part way there by overtaxing his limited     memory. His excursion may be more enjoyable if he can     reacquire the privilege of forgetting the manifold things he     does not need to have immediately at hand, with some     assurance that he can find them again if they prove     important."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0212" text="&quot;The applications of science have     built man a well-supplied house, and are teaching him to     live healthily therein. They have enabled him to throw     masses of people against another with cruel weapons. They     may yet allow him truly to encompass the great record and to     grow in the wisdom of race experience. He may perish in     conflict before he learns to wield that record for his true     good. Yet, in the application of science to the needs and     desires of man, it would seem to be a singularly unfortunate     stage at which to terminate the process, or to lose hope as     to the outcome."/>
          </outline>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0213" text="2. Comments Related to Bush's   Article">
          <outline hs:nid="0214" text="There are many significant items in   the article, but the main ones upon which we shall comment   here will be those relative to the use and implications of his   Memex. The associative trails whose establishment and use   within the files he describes at some length provide a   beautiful example of a new capsbility in symbol structuring   that derives from new artifact-process capability, and that   provides new ways to develop and portray concept structures.   Any file is a symbol structure whose purpose is to represent a   variety of concepts and concept structures in a way that makes   them maximally available and useful to the needs of the   human's mental-structure development -- within the limits   imposed by the capability of the artifacts and human for   jointly executing processes of symbol-structure   manipulation. The Memex allows a human user to do more   conveniently (less energy, more quickly) what he could have   done with relatively ordinary photographic equipment and   filing systems, but he would have had to spend so much time in   the lower-level processes of manipulation that his mental time   constants of memory and patience would have rendered the   system unusable in the detailed and intimate sense which Bush   illustrates."/>
          <outline 